Research Paper Outline Examples Essay

Once you’ve already decided what topic you will be writing about, the next thing you should pay attention to is the scope of your paper or what you will be including in your discussion. The broader your topic is, the more difficult it is to discuss your topic in full details. This is why you should establish before hand the scope and limitations of your paper and this will be the foundation of your research paper outline. Basically, your outline will constitute three main parts namely the Introduction, the Body and the Conclusion. But to make sure your paper is complete, consult your instructor for specific parts he/she wants to be included in your research paper. Sample outlines for research papers will be given later on. But first, let us discuss the main parts of your paper and what information each should cover. Introduction The Introduction should contain your thesis statement or the topic of your research as well as the purpose of your study. You may include here the reason why you chose the particular topic or simply the significance of your research paper’s topic. You may also state what type of approach it is that you’ll be using in your paper for the entire discussion of your topic. Generally, your Introduction should state briefly all the major points of your topic your readers will be reading about. Body The body of your paper is where you will be presenting all your arguments to support your thesis statement. Please be reminded of the â€Å"Rule of 3† where you should find 3 supporting arguments for each position you take. Start with a strong argument, followed by a stronger one, and end with the strongest argument as your final point.

Churches do to become a better reflection of Christianity

We must acknowledge that as a church, we need to become better. Unless we admit that we need to improve, we will never strive to be a better reflection of Christianity. As a church, we should help each other point out what is causing our weaknesses and shortcomings in unity and in humility. Never be content. Seek for improvement on a regular basis. As a diverse group with collective beliefs, how can we work as united Christians? What can we do to be a better brother or sister to our fellow church members? How can we help our neighbors? What can we do for our community?How can we show non-believers that the Christian life Is the life they should follow? How can we be a better reflection of our church and of Christianity? These are some questions that we should ask together and seek the answers, together. When outsiders and non-believers see that we are united, they too shall witness God's love that binds us Christians as one big church, one big family. ) â€Å"Sadly, without the atmo sphere of revival, many Christians lapse into something inferior to the Christian norm. Christian culture declines. (Towns, peg 131) Towns pointed out that with the absence of the atmosphere of revival, Christians fall out of the Christian path. My question is: why must revival end? This is a common mistake most churches do. As soon as the mission was fulfilled, we walk away thinking that what we had started/had Just revived will flourish on its own. My challenge, therefore, is continuous revival. Pursue revival not only to the outsiders, non-believers and the nest that have left the Christian path, but also within the people of our church.When a farmer plants his crops, he does not leave it to tend on its own, he will continue visiting his crops, trim the weeds that surround it, water the plants, and make sure that it has what it needs to grow and thrive. We are like the farmer, and our church is our crop, we are responsible for the growth and progress of our Christian community. W e should never cease reviving our church or our community. If we keep that light burning, we will be able to keep our church inspired in working together to be better Christians and followers of Jesus Christ.

!0 Mary Street Short Analysis

10 Mary Street Analysis 10 Mary Street is a poem by Peter Skrzynecki, appearing in Migrant Chronicle. The poem discusses family, connection to place and the impacts of Peter’s own migrant experience. Skrzynecki details richly impassioned recounts told in snippets of symbolism, imagery and throwbacks to the pre-war European environment Skrzynecki’s family belonged in. * The first stanza depicts the habitual routine of Skrzynecki’s family, as indicated by the use of the phrase â€Å"Each morning† in the third line. This helps evoke a clear sense of normal practice and routine in the lives of the Skrzynecki family.Additionally through the use of industrial imagery; â€Å"rusty bucket†, â€Å"bridge†, â€Å"factory† the audience can see a sense of comfort and connection to their humble surrounds. * The second stanza presents the strong connection that Peter’s parents share with their garden. But while Skrzynecki’s parents tak e fulfilment in nurturing and fostering the garden (Tended roses and camellias/ Like adopted children), Skrzynecki himself didn’t hold the same values as his parents (I’d ravage the backyard garden/ Like a hungry bird).This contrasting use of simile accurately depicts the sort of cultural background Skrzynecki feels he doesn’t belong to. * The third stanza discusses the connection to the 10 Mary Street address that his family holds. The use of personification in the first line; â€Å"The house stands† highlights the human value of the house and establishes a strong sense of belonging to the house. Additionally, the use of Cumulative listing lines in 13-17 helps to reinforce the family’s strong connection to their European heritage. The final stanza presents a contrasting view of belonging whereby Peter feels his family â€Å"became citizens of the soil/ That was feeding us† and indicates a sense of comfort and acceptance of the Australian wa y of life. The last 3 lines: â€Å"Inheritors of a key/ That’ll open no house/ When this one is pulled down. † Re-establishes what the house symbolised for them and the notion that the sort of connection 10 Mary Street had to their new lives in Australia will be a challenge to recreate.

I just need the bibliography to be done Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

I just need the bibliography to be done - Essay Example 2006. africaresource. 17 Dec. 2007 . 8. Kiehl, Stephen. â€Å"Cashing in on the pop and hip-hop name-drop†. Baltimore Sun. 2004. Commercial Alert. 17 Dec. 2007 . 9. Mattus, Carolyn. â€Å"Hip-hops evolution, success examined†. THE HEIGHTS. 2005. BCHEIGHTS.com. 17 Dec. 2007 . 11. Silverstien, Matt. â€Å"Concerning Hip-Hop: A Repressive Agent or Vehicle for Activism?† Commercial Hip-Hop and Social Grassroots. 2006. africaresource. 17 Dec. 2007 . 14. â€Å"Since 1994, violent crime rates have declined, reaching the lowest level ever in 2005†. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2006. Office of Justice Programs. U.S. Department of Justice. 17 Dec. 2007 . 16. Howard, Theresa. â€Å"Rapper 50 Cent sings a song of business success†. Advertising & Marketing. 2005. USA TODAY. 17 Dec. 2007 . 21. Ogunnaike, Lola. â€Å"Jay-Z, From Superstar to Suit†. The New York Times. 2005. NYTimes.com. 17 Dec. 2007 . 24. Wasserman, Todd. â€Å"Playing The Hip-Hop Name Drop†. Brandweek. 2005. ISIDE BRANDED ENTERTAINMENT. 17 Dec. 2007

Environmental issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Environmental issues - Essay Example The amount is relatively high when compared to other developed nations. The reasons for unsustainable cost are due to pressure on health institutions that arises due to excessive admissions. The health system has not invested enough in primary care, and health promotion thus reducing preventative measures. The high cost of services and low quality of care is critical for Americans. In recent past, the system concentrated on secondary and tertiary care. As noted, the primary care system is underdeveloped. The need to offer affordable care to all citizens regardless of their economic status prompted reforms in the health sector. The reforms include the Medicare Bill and the Affordable Care Act that aimed to cover the inefficiencies and equal access to healthcare. Successive governments have been under pressure to mitigate the drawbacks in the health system. The proposed and implemented options include health insurance, health promotion and advocating primary care as a means to reduce pressure on health

Source Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Source Evaluation - Essay Example Convincingly, his article provides a deep analysis of this social problem and provides ground to reduce domestic violence in the society. Ganley is a PhD holder who has a wide experience in the social affairs issues and a member of the future without violence organization. He is among the great pool of social activists who have stood up in the fight against domestic violence. Ganley (16) defines domestic violence as a pattern of assaultive and coercive behaviors, including physical, sexual, psychological attacks as well as economic coercion that adults or adolescents use against their intimate partners. The author provides a strong definition of domestic violence that reveals its nature and contains some of the most ignored factors of domestic violence. Many scholars have defined gender violence as violence against women and this definition cannot fit the contemporary society where complex marriage institutions exist and both men and women can be subjects of violence. With this definition, Ganley seems to consider the family structural changes, which makes his work unique and credible. The author points out to the various forms of gender violence in the society and the way they arise. Ganley (19-21) identifies physical, sexual and psychological assault as possible forms of domestic violence. Physical violence refers to the beating or fighting while sexual violence refers to the forceful use of sex on a partner within an intimate relationship. On the other hand, psychological assault refers to the use of threats of violence in intimidating a partner, which may have an emotional effect on the person. Most scholars have ignored psychological torture as a manifestation of domestic violence and Ganley goes an extra mile to elaborate that this is another form of the domestic violence. Actually, threats of war within a

Why is the conviction rate for rape so low in the United Kingdom Dissertation

Why is the conviction rate for rape so low in the United Kingdom - Dissertation Example More often than not, the prosecution and defence parties know each other, making the witness accounts more likely to involve some bias. Despite this, it is suggested that the United Kingdom has some of the best training in the world for officers dealing with rape cases, with a huge number of restrictions and guidelines in relation to these cases. However, the conviction rate for rape still remains extremely low, especially when compared with that of other physical crimes. The Association of Chief Police Officers lead for rape has suggested that this might be because the training is often ignored, perhaps due to the personal nature of rape cases. The purpose of this investigation is to critically review the available literature on the topic to ascertain further reasons why this conviction rate is still so low for cases of rape. This will provide material to evaluate the situation for rape victims (and those falsely accused of rape) in the U.K. and perform a critical reflection on the subject. This material will be used to show that it is the very nature of rape that ensures the conviction rate remains at this low percentage, although changes in procedure may help the proceedings in some cases. Definitions and Types of Rape Perhaps something that makes cases of rape more likely to go unprosecuted is that the definition of rape changes between individuals and between organizational bodies. This could have a number of consequences, not least being that jurors may have differing opinions that make prosecution difficult. The United Nations (UN) definition of rape is ‘sexual intercourse without valid consent’6, which in the United Kingdom includes minors under 16 years of age who are not legally able to give ‘valid consent’. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggests that rape is ‘physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration – even if slight – of the vulva or anus, using a penis, other body parts or an objectâ€⠄¢7, again focusing on penetration being the definitive act. Some feel that this is exclusive of those who experience sexual misconduct without penetration. Within the United Kingdom, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 defines rape as an act which can only be carried out by a man, must involve penetration and this man must not reasonably believe that there is consent.8 This is the definition that will be used throughout this essay, as it is useful from a legal context, despite the social issues that it may provoke. Rape & Prosecution Rates in the United Kingdom The Home Office publishes statistics on rape cases, which provide a useful basis for any research on rape in the United Kingdom. The following figures do not include statutory rape; all the cases reported here are by male and female victims aged between 16 and 59. This gives the rate of rape and attempted rate for 2006 as about 0.5% of women in the 16-59 age group, or one in every 200 women9. When cases of attempted rate are exclud ed, the rate remains high at 0.3%. Overall, the best estimate for sexual assault crimes was that it affected It was reported that 53% of cases of serious sexual assault against women were caused by a partner (a complicating factor that will be discussed below), whilst in men the most common

Corporate governance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Corporate governance - Essay Example In corporate governance, the company’s management takes a trustee’s role for other parties that have interests in the company. Corporate governance is majorly based on principles like conducting business with fairness and integrity, transparency in handling transactions, complying with laws governing operation of companies, making sound decisions and necessary disclosures, ethical issues in conducting business and responsibility and accountability towards stakeholders. There is also need to clearly distinguish between corporate funds and personal funds when managing a company. Enron Corporation was a company dealing in services, commodities and energy based in Houston, Texas state in America. It had approximately 20,000 staff members and was among the world’s major natural gas, electricity, pulp and paper and communications companies before its bankruptcy in December 2001. After 2001, it was found that the company’s financial condition was majorly sustained by a systematic, institutionalized and planned accounting fraud that was termed as Enron scandal (Sterling, 2002). The Enron Scandal that was discovered in 2001 led to bankruptcy of Enron Corporation and dissolution of Arthur Andersen, an entity that was among the five largest accountancy and audit partnerships worldwide by then. Enron is rated the biggest failure in audit apart from leading as the largest bankrupt company in the history of America by then. The case analyzes the cause of this failure in details. Lack of truthfulness. According to the report given by Kirk Hanson, the executive director of Markkula, a center for Applied Ethics, the Enron management did not give true information concerning the company’s health (Canadian Center of Science & Education, 2010). The senior executives developed a belief that Enron had to take the first position in relation to other companies and also they had to maintain their reputations as well performing executives in the United

Business environment and strategic management Essay

Business environment and strategic management - Essay Example The period between 1990 and 2008 saw a series of activities which were steeped in several factors which include amongst other things; strategic drift, failure to adapt to dominant changes in the external environment, excessive focus on profit maximisation and the desire to hold on to corporate traditions rather than innovate to meet the changes. This paper examines the case of Kodak in relation to strategic management, change management, innovation and strategic responsiveness. It will use six theories to examine the case of Kodak and how it led to the eventual downward spiral of the company. The paper will assess the shortfalls of Kodak in relation to Scenario Analysis, Cultural Web, Strategic Drift, Pascale's Excess Theory, Schumpeter's conception of Innovation and Marconi's model. Scenario Analysis â€Å"Scenario analysis involves a system of envisioning the movements in the markets by examining a series of possibilities in order to draw alternative plans to meet them.† (Mc Keown, 2006 p68). ... In hat case, another business in the industry that got the variables right in its planning is likely to succeed in the industry ahead of the industry that failed to draw several plans and alter its operations. Cooper cites the example of IBM (2005). In 1980, IBM was on top of the technology game. IBM was a leader in the manufacture and development of computer software and hardware. IBM envisioned in 1980 that by 1990, there would be a total of 275,000 computer users. And since IBM was the market leader, they believed that their estimation was absolute and precise. As such, the top level management which had a centralised system of management and control ensured that there were no deviations from the primary plan. As such, IBM outsourced significant components of the manufacture of personal computers to Intel and Microsoft. IBM did this on the basis that there would be only 275,000 computer users in the coming decade. Due to that, they focused on other ventures and other manufacturing contracts in the technological industry that they thought was going to be more profitable. However, the number of computer users increased exponentially. By 1990, there were as many as 60 million personal computer users around the world. This was enormously different from the figure they estimated in 1980. One may ask why IBM did not review their plans about the computer industry because the change was highly significant and if the management had their ears to the ground, they would have realized that things were changing and they would have made changes. Cooper identifies some key pointers that led to the downfall of IBM and they are all steeped in the failure to undertake

Public Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Public Administration - Essay Example Public Administration is a branch of political science which deals with those agencies that perform functions related to the government. It is related to the management of public programs and those who work in it communicate with the residents of their country or community. Public Administration can be divided into two categories: direct and indirect. The direct administration is the provision of services like electricity, insurance, delivery of emails etc. Indirect administration includes the contracts that government makes with private organizations of people in order to provide goods and services to citizens. Public Administration is the implementation of a public law. It also includes regulation, telling people and organizations what they could or could not do. It is the responsibility of the government to manage different functions like taxation, public spending like provision of street lights, unemployment benefits etc. The majority tasks of the government are performed by bure aucrats who have to think of solutions to the challenges faced by the society. A public administrator also performs duties like creating government policies, advising officials and setting budgets etc. Public administration works on how government decisions are made and even how to implement those decisions. An example of the tasks performed by public administration officials includes coming up with efficient solutions to different problems or issues prevalent in a society like introducing rehabilitation programs for criminals etc.

Rise and fall of World Empires Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rise and fall of World Empires - Term Paper Example Just like numerous other empires of its time, the Roman Empire relied heavily on agriculture to boost its economy. The empire owned large tracts of agricultural land that not only provided food for the urban population but which also offered employment to a large section of individuals in the empire. The surplus food gotten from the agricultural sector was used for trade with other nations in the region. In order to facilitate trade, an extensive road network was built in the region and this made the region to have one of the best transport infrastructures in the region. This infrastructure enabled commerce in the region to flourish something that led into the region’s economic stability (Maddison 12).  Ã‚   The Roman Empire trade and economic prosperity enhanced during the Pax Romana era, the empires well laid road and sea network made it ideal for merchants to go to every region belonging to the Roman Empire. However, this network was not stable since after the Pax Romana ended, merchants were no longer assured of their safety of their goods while in transit. The collapse of the Pax Romana and the expansion that they had engineered also brought to an end the loss of the loot that came out of the numerous conquests engineered by the emperor, and this in many ways accelerated the collapse of the emperor (Maddison 13).  Ã‚   In order to fund their operations, the different emperors would occasionally alter laws and come up with varied currencies something that brought chaos in the empire.  Ã‚  

The strange case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Essay Example for Free

The strange case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Essay In my essay I am going to discuss the story called The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. This story is a pre 20th century gothic novel written by Robert Louis Stevenson. When I say a gothic novel I dont mean something of the dark ages but rather a story that has a dark deep story which ventures into the unknown. This story is typical of the 19th century when people had radical ideas which were questionable to those in Victorian society. The story starts with a person called Mr Hyde trampling over a young girl and producing a cheque with Dr Jekylls name on it to pay for the damage done to the girl. Later Dr Jekylls friends find that he has made a will to a man named Mr Hyde that was to be given to him under doctor Jekylls death or disappearance. His friends think that he has been threatened or forced to make a will to this wicked man Mr Hyde. Later in the story the whole mystery was revealed to us. Dr Jekyll was involved in an experiment which was supposed to break the bond between good and evil. This barrier of good and evil could be put in comparison with Soho and Cavendish Square. The experiment that Dr Jekyll was involved in made his evil side come out which was Mr Hyde but to do this Dr Jekyll had to drink a potion. After a while Hydes appearance could no longer be controlled with the potion but came out when ever Dr Jekyll dosed off. This is why Dr Jekyll made a will to Hyde because he was afraid that he will never be able to turn back to his normal self and Hyde will have money to spend instead of having nothing. Later I will discuss this in more detail but now I will talk about the setting of the novel. In the novel Stevenson uses different characters to show and express the theme of mans hypocritical and divided nature, one of these characters is Dr Lanyon. When he is with his friends his behaviour seems to show someone who is a good friend and will do a lot to help his friends out but when it comes to his reputation he will not help his friends as he previously would have if it did not involve his reputation and others who have ruined their reputation by their deeds. One example of this is when he was dying he said I have had a shock and I shall never recover. There it sounded as if he has signed his passport to death, yet later when Jekyll is mentioned he says I wish to see or hear no more of Dr Jekyll. He didnt say why he didnt want to see him any more he was very vague as he was trying to keep his own reputation and that of Jekylls. This may seem a nice thing to do but if it involves something as serious as someone changing into the wicked character of Hyde who kills people suc h as Sir Danvers Carew then to protect them seems wrong. Gabriel Utterson is supposed to be the perfect gentleman he shows this by trying to find out peoples problems and trying to solve them but without the problems being gossiped about. An example of this is when he found the will that Dr Jekyll had made to Hyde which would have allowed Hyde to have Jekylls money after his disappearance for more than 3 months or his death. This concerned Utterson so he talked to Jekyll himself and said I have been waiting to speak to you, Jekyllyou know that will of yours? That is just one of the many quotes that could be found since it shows that he had a true interest in his friends and by the manner of the sentence construction it looks like he is speaking to Jekyll in a calm manner with a listening ear and someone who speaks like this would unlikely be a gossiper. Despite his kindness and loyalty to his friends he still wasnt the perfect gentleman since he was attracted to those of the Victorian underworld. This suggests that visits to places like Soho is not out of the question and this defies his outer reputation so the saying never judge a book by its cover fits nicely here as even though Utterson seems such an upright man he still under his cover has something to hide. Furthermore the woman at Hydes room is another example of hypocrisy. She is smoothed faced and well mannered when she comes to the door but no doubt has evil dealings with Hyde which her demeanour hides. Mr Hyde is the most controversial of characters. He is the evil side of Dr Jekyll. We know the sort of things Hyde gets up to such as his assault on people, his murders and the fact that he resides in Soho gives an idea of his conduct. These sorts of actions are not associated with Dr Jekyll but it is still him that is doing it. This shows that even though Jekyll seems to be respectable he has evil thoughts and this is expressed through his metamorphosis into Hyde where all his evil comes to the fore. Discussing Jekyll shows that once he had conducted his experiment and proved that he had broken the barrier between good and evil he continued conducting these experiments and he knew what Hyde was doing but he still let Hyde rampage until he couldnt be controlled. So this shows that though one may have good intentions in the beginning they can be changed by unforeseen circumstances so it shows that it is hard to control that quality of evil. You could say that Enfield leads a double life as he saw the girl being trampled down he must have been out at that late hour of 03:00 and he would have only been out at that time if he was venturing down the streets of Soho doing things that upper class Victorian society would not allow him. Stevenson used the idea of there being a beast inside a man in the character of Hyde. We saw that Hyde had animal like qualities. In the novella he was found to be shrinking back with a hissing intake of breath signifying that he had snake like qualities in him. Also, when Poole was describing when he saw a thing in the house which he thought may have been Jekyll he said If it were my master why did he cry out like rat and run from me, that shows another animal like quality that Hyde possessed. Here Hyde was depicted as using animal like qualities, without conscience suggesting that evil is easily committed. This theme of there being a beast in a man was developed by Charles Darwins theory of humans developing from apes so Stevenson gave his central character these qualities had beast like qualities. Following on from that Victorian people were obsessed by the idea of recidivism. This is when they thought that the poor were going to turn into animals and the rich were worried by the collapse of societal values. This suggests that we all have evil in us. I dont think that we have good or evil in us but it is up to us to be good or evil. Anyone can do anything evil, but the thing is whether their conscience will bother them. In 99 people out of 100 people their consciences will bother them if they killed someone on the other hand in the case of Hyde he had no problem killing another human being. Stevenson uses a number of symbols to reinforce important themes in the novel. Perhaps the most powerful symbol in the novella is found in the contrast of the rear and front entrances of the house. The door that represents innocence and decency is the front door. This is the door where Dr Jekyll usually enters. This door represents excellence because it is in Cavendish Square; this area has a reputation of being the dwelling place of the most respectable people in London. The front of the house, where the front door is situated, is clean and maintained to an exemplary standard and gives an air of purity. However, the door and the stylish exterior belie the existence of Hyde in Jekyll. A door is used to depict the evil secretive side of Dr Jekyll. This can be said because the lab outhouse is an old dilapidated building as shown by this quote and bore in every feature the marks of prolonged negligence. The door which was equipped with neither bell nor knocker, was blistered and distained. This shows that no care was shown to this building that was in fact part of Dr Jekylls house. This rear door was in Soho even though it is the same house as doctor Jekylls. Since there are two sides of the house it coincides with the two sided nature of Dr Jekyll whose other side is Hyde. This is why Hyde uses the back door that represents evil because it is in Soho and is derelict and why Jekyll uses the front door which is clean and represents Jekylls innocent nature. Soho gives the connotation of iniquity and wickedness, because in Soho there were many poor people who went to all kinds of lengths to get money some of these are things like stealing and prostitution which you do not associate with purity and hence door denotes vice. Stevenson seems to be saying that being poor is being evil, however you cant judge a person from their material possessions but the environment they are in can affect their behaviour. In the novella Stevenson uses images of buildings with locked doors, those without windows or barred windows. I think these symbols give a sense of being trapped. In this case evil is trapped behind locked doors. Some doors were opened to no one. This was not uncommon in Victorian society. These were things associated with recluses. The reason why I use this is that Jekyll was locked in his cabinet for a very long time. This is a symbolism of Dr Jekylls soul trying to suppress something evil from coming out which is Hyde. This is shown in Dr Jekylls narrative when he says It took on this occasion a double dose to recall me to myself so he was trying to suppress Hyde by taking this double dose of potion. Some other images that will fill this niche well are barred windows because this depicts some thing urging to get out but is being obstructed by a barrier. This at first represented Hyde when Jekyll had only started to take his potion but later this represented Jekyll when Hyde was ra ging and Jekyll was keeping him out. Stevenson uses the characters speech in The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde to show us how honest or dishonest characters are. Some of the characters are honest in their speech and usually which is calm and straight forward because they have nothing to hide. On the other hand, even though Poole was honest he was very frightened when he was talking to Utterson about the mysterious happening of Dr Jekyll he said I have been afraid for a week and I can bear it no more. Here Poole was being very honest about the fact that he was scared of the situation in the house so honesty does not always mean that you are going to be relaxed but you still can be tense when telling the truth. Enfield can also be an honest talker even though he is a bit of a gossiper. Some other characters that are not so honest include Lanyon and Jekyll. We can tell this because they are reserved secretive and even formal with their own friends. For example, Jekyll speaks in a very reserved manner and secretive way with his own friends. An example of this is when he is speaking to Utterson about the will You do not understand my position, I am painfully situated, Utterson; my position is very strange. It is one of those affairs that cannot be mended by talking. There we see that he was very vague with his own friend, which is a very strange position. You could at least explain to your friend but since Jekyll had Hyde to hide he glazed over the subject leaving Utterson mystified. There is another example of this in the case of Dr Lanyon when he was speaking to Utterson about Jekyll he said I swear to God I will never set eyes on him again. He did not say why he would not set eyes on him. Even though he was saving the reputation of Jekyll and keeping to his doctors agreement not to release any information he still should of told Utterson because when Jekyll turned into Hyde lives were at risk as Hyde was a person of evil. So Stevenson shows that Victorian people of the upper class still strayed from their strict boundaries and were hypocritical they did this because they had something to Hyde. Using a number of different techniques and images Stevenson creates a dark and menacing setting for the novel. Most of the action in the novel that in involves Hyde takes place under the cover of darkness and Stevenson frequently reminds us with this by giving us images of light and dark. Light can change peoples moods all the way from bright and cheery to the opposite of dark and menacing. It is interesting that Stevenson uses a dark black winter morning when Enfield meets Hyde. This dramatic tension something bad had happened at that time hence Stevenson uses darkness to depict something sinister. Stevenson also refers quite a lot to lamps as they have to do with light. In the story it says My way lay through a part of town where there was literally nothing to be seen but lamps. This depicts darkness in other words evil, and there is some good, the lamps, but where there is too much darkness and too few lamps it is like evil overwhelming the good. This scene was at 3oclock in the morning when most good people are asleep so this gives criminals the chance to be active without being spotted so this is why that scene was effective because the corruption by far outweighed the good. Stevenson compares the streets of London to a labyrinth, which depicts that London is an easy place to get lost in therefore it would be a criminals paradise as they can do anything and weave themselves through the streets of London away from pursuers such as the police or victims of the crime. This can also depict Dr Jekylls lost soul as he cant seem to bring himself back but being continuously being over ridden by Hyde, his evil side. Stevenson shows us how deserted the streets of London were at night time Street after street and all the folks asleep street after street, all lighted up as if for a procession and all as empty as a church. That really shows how deserted the streets of London were as empty as a church. This is when Hyde went about his dealings such as the murder of Sir Danvers Carew. Another example of the silence is in Chapter 2 By ten oclock, when the shops were closed the by street was very solitary, and in spite of the low growl of London from all round, very silent. So if a place is very solitary and very silent it must be desolate except for those who do things under the cover of darkness such as criminals and those who have something to hide. To create setting with a particularly threatening and depressing atmosphere, Stevenson uses words and phrases such as great chocolate coloured pall lowered over heaven to depict a dark and lifeless time with no brightness to be seen. Another example is mournful reinvasion of darkness. This makes it seem as if bright has been there for a very short time but and darkness is coming again. This shows that it must be winter time. Also used is some city in a nightmare that quote explains itself. Dingy street, brown as umber and blackguardly surrounding all describe what Soho was like. These phrases also seem to show a war between light and dark. The above is a description of the morning but there is also a lot of mention of dark. This war between light and dark has been made by Stevenson to reinforce some of the central themes of good versus evil. A quote between shows this war between light and dark is this for a moment, the fog would be quite broken up, and a haggard shaft of day light of daylight would glance between the swirling wreaths so that shows only for a while there are sunny spells and quickly they disappear from the fog. When those two forces are equal this was like when Jekyll resumed have his dinner parties. Stevenson uses every day phrases to depict great powerful images and these images are relevant to people in his day so that is why his stories work so well. By setting his novel in the heart of London, between Cavendish Square and Soho, Stevenson allows us to see the divisions between the rich and the poor in Victorian society. All of the main characters in the novel are rich excluding the illusive figure of Hyde who is a rich person because he is Jekyll but lives as person who is neither rich nor poor. The rich characters are supposedly solid, respectable men, and should be possessed by people like lawyers and doctors. These are men who have a high social status in Victorian society and could afford a large house with a butler and many servants. This gave these people, such as Jekyll, a sense of power over other people. In our story it seems as if Dr Jekylls reputation for being an upright, good and exact person is being lost with his association with Mr Hyde that is why he seems to shy away from the subject of Hyde when it appears in conversation. The area where Dr Jekyll, Mr Utterson and Dr Lanyon live is a wealthy and respectable area in the heart of Londons West End, Cavendish Sqaure. It is imperative that men of such status live in these areas, as they complement the high social status they are supposed to have. They would not find themselves in an area such as Soho, let alone live in it, but one person Mr Hyde is a disreputable man and seems to have no awareness of social standing. Soho is amazingly within a mile of Cavendish Square but the contrast of the two places is immeasurable. One would presume that because two areas are in such close vicinity they would be fairly similar, in the case of Soho and Cavendish Square you would not be more wrong. Soho is destitute, the streets are grimy and you would find it impossible to find a clean spot, beggars sit outside the door hoping people will give them money, there are people who are ready to jump you if they get a whiff of money on you, and women that prostate themselves in brothels to get money. These are the sort of places that respectable people go to satisfy their desires under the cover darkness. In contrast Cavendish Square is clean and filled with lavishly furnished and structurally sound buildings unlike those in Soho where the houses are decrepit and beyond repair. Since the houses in Cavendish Square are so grand you would think that they would be housed by honest people but we know that not all of the people are as honourable as they seem. Going into more detail the lives of those in Cavendish Square would consist of many dinner parties, studying and for the younger generation there would be plenty of balls. Most of these upper class people would distain the thought of leading a life like those in Soho as they were very comfortable and were engulfed around this lifestyle. Also the difference between the women of the upper class and lower class is that those of the upper class would have very little free choice as these were controlled by a man of the family whether that is their husband brother or father. In the lower classes the women had more say as they had to do what they could to earn money to live on but this was unnecessary for the upper class as a few pounds here and there would not make much difference to their hundreds of thousands to millions of pounds. In this essay Stevenson was trying to make us think about the nature of humans in Victorian society. In Victorian society there were great rifts between the rich and the poor. These rifts made the upper class think that the poor were beast as they had to go to seemingly animalistic means to get the food that they needed. What these upper class people didnt realise was that if you put two completely different people in close proximity the worst of people would come out. This can be said because if you went in to the country in that time you would find farmers doing their work to get money, they had the opportunity to earn an honest living but not in London. London was an over crowded place at that time and was nowhere as large as it is now. Factory work was the most popular line of work for the lower class people but those found in Soho were unable to find jobs to earn an honest living. The upper classes obviously did not realise the reason for poor life in Soho hence became obsessed by the idea of recidivism. This is why I think this story has that theme as Stevenson was trying to explore ideas as to why the poor lived in such an animalistic state. Stevenson has made me think of why the lower class Victorian society had to go so low to survive that is why I have the explanation above. The setting of Victorian London is a fitting setting for this type of novel because this is a time when there were lots of mysteries that were not mentioned because of superstition and so remained a mystery. In a modern society though these are no longer mysteries as the problems to these solutions has been solved. The solution is to treat everyone equally or have equal opportunities; with this no one can blame any one for their poor quality of life but themselves. Unfortunately this can only be said of richer countries as they have the monetary capabilities to give every one these opportunities. In Victorian times you automatically were judged by the class you were born in to and had a poor education so therefore you did not have the opportunities of those today. The reason why Stevenson wanted us to think about the difference between classes is that he grew up in Edinburgh where the difference between the classes was greater he witnessed poverty, disease and over crowding near to his place of dwelling, a middle class New Town. This could be associated with the closeness of the two places of Soho and Cavendish Square. This city fed Stevensons young mind of the supernatural so that is wh y he thought of the character of Hyde; pure evil. Another point of discussion is duality. Stevenson made us think whether men have an evil side or not. I do not think that men can separate themselves into two simply by drinking a potion but they could have a dual personality by leading a double life. This point was a prevalent point in the story with the example of Jekyll hiding things from people using his double personality to do what ever he wants to. Many people did this in Victorian times but not having two characters but using the cover of darkness to do what they would not dare to do in the daylight as their respectability was very important to them in other words they were hypocritical. Stevenson was trying to use this subject of respectability which he had a problem with. He wanted to see what other people thought about his life style without using himself in the story but by substituting himself with the two characters of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. When he was 17 and studying engineering he was living a respectable life by day and under the cover of darkness he was living a debauched life that would not befit the life of someone in the middle classes. Because of the hypocrisy he witnessed, and was going through himself he wanted to bring to peoples attention that the seemingly perfect upper and middle classes were not what they seemed but on the whole a hypocritical bunch of people. Now days the things that the poor got up to dont seem as bad but when we look to authority we find it shocking to learn what goes on. An example of this is of Bill Clinton. We all know the story that he was having an affair with someone else when he was married and managed to hide it for some time. So think again, hypocrisy still goes on today. This essay had a great deal to do with the Victorian culture as this idea of duality perplexed many doctors and scientists of that day Stevenson tried to find the explanation for himself and no doubt other people of the day had tried to find the answer. Like the person who wrote a short story called Markhiem that had characters living double lives in it. Stevenson had a fetish about this idea of duality, it was no doubt because of his illness and inability to spend much time outside his bedroom and therefore his nurse told him stories about the differences between life of good and evil with the life of evil leading to a life in hell. This made him have terrible nightmares which stuck to him through out his whole life this is why in his stories he described Hyde as having the mark of Satan. Stevenson recalls his nurse telling him there are but two camps in the world one perfectly pious and respectable, one of the perfectly mundane and vicious: one mostly on its knees and singing hymns, the other on the high road to the gallows and the bottomless pit. This no doubt made him think of the idea of recidivism because if one were so vicious they must be nearer to an animal instead of a human.

Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare

Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare ARTHASHASTRA AND ITS RELEVANCE IN MODERN WARFARE AND COUNTERINSURGENCY/COUNTERTERRORISM PHILOSOPHY â€Å"In the happiness of his subjects lies the kings happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects†¦An archer letting off an arrow may or may not kill a single man, but a wise man using his intellect can kill even reaching unto the very womb.† The Arthashastra INTRODUCTION SITUATING THE ARTHASHASTRA Historical Background 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta[1] was the key advisor to and the genius behind the strategy undertaken by the king Chandra Gupta Maurya (317-293 B.C.) who stopped the advance of Alexander the Greats successors and introduced the Golden Age of India.[2] The Mauryan kingdom united and amalgamated the Indian sub-continent into a single entity for the first time, thus creating the concept of Indian nationhood. The Mauryan Empire extended from the Persian border in the West to Burma in the East covered most of peninsular India.[3] The empire lasted 150 years until about 180 BC, after which the empire dissociated[4] into several fragments. Kautilya was the chancellor to Chandra Gupta Maurya, and he composed the Arthashastra to counsel a ruler on how to defeat ones enemies and rule for the general good. The Arthashastra was very influential in ancient India up to the 12th century AD, when it faded from the public eye. The text, however, reappeared in 1904 and was publis hed in English in 1915.[5] 2. Artha[6] of Arthashastra stands for wealth, but it has a much wider significance. As enunciated by Kautilya, wealth of a nation is both the territory of the state and the inhabitants of the state. Thus economics is at the heart of Arthashastra. A healthy economy and loyal subjects can be achieved by having an adequate balance between the treasury of the state and the welfare of the people, was preached by Kautilya. This was to be achieved by maintaining law and order and adequate administrative machinery.[7] Thus the Arthashastra also contains the enforcement of laws (Dandaniti) and the details of the organisation of civil service and duties of state officials.[8] Arthashastra Overview 3. Written about 300 B.C., Kautilyas work was pitched to teach with the various intricacies of governance and politics to the king.[9] Kautilya has covered the subject in depth and offers insights into various spheres of statecraft, war and diplomacy. Kautilya wished his king to become a world conqueror[10] hence his analysis of the types of war, his doctrine of assassination, sowing discord amongst the enemy, use of spies, religion, superstition, along with the use of women to create conflicts in the enemy camp are engrossing and unputdownable.[11] 4. Books of Treatise. The Arthashastra is divided into 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6,000 slokas.[12] The books are arranged in a manner that the initial books deal with internal administration and the later books on a states relations with its neighbours. Interestingly, there exists a very prominent mention of the ancient Navy as he has mentioned the ‘superintendent of ships in Book II. He may have foreseen the advantages of a sea borne force and a Navy.[13] 5. Science of Arthashastra. Kautilya believed that a rulers duties included the internal administration of the country, protection of the state from external aggression, maintenance of law and order within the state, and the welfare of the people. New territory had to be acquired by alliance or conquest for the prosperity of the state and also in the political environment existing then, which had many kings, anyone content with his own territory was likely to fall prey to hedgemonistic ambitions of the other. 6. Spectrum of Arthashastra. Kautilya argued that a nation could never achieve prosperity under a foreign ruler; indicating that independence was a pre-requisite for prosperity and economic progress. At the macro level, the Arthashastra covers the entire gamut of human society, the establishment and continuance of a nation state, foreign policy, war, civil law and economics. At the other end of the spectrum, the book delves into the building blocks of a society by clearly defining standardised weights[14], measures and time, values and taxes on commodities[15], metallurgical standards[16], sources of state revenue[17] and a detailed analysis of the composition of an army and forts.[18] 7. National Security. Kautilya insisted that all threats to national security must be eliminated at any cost to the state, while no enemy must be privy to the inner machinations and processes of ones own state â€Å"Like a tortoise, the king (state) shall draw in any limb of his that is exposed.†[19] Internal stability was the harbinger of economic well being. However, to maintain internal and external security, Kautilya proposed a massive network of spies and agents operating within the state and also in surrounding and enemy states. Detailed descriptions of espionage and counter-espionage activities, physical punishments and torture for internal security set this work apart from any other political treatise. 8. The Arthashastra is thus a mixture of both what we applaud today and what we consider to be reprehensible. Kautilya wrote his book about 2300 years ago when extreme forms of governance were commonplace and the primary task of the ruling monarch was primacy of his state and a policy of expansionism. While Kautilya was quite willing to reward those who served the state, he seemed to have an obsession with using the discipline of the laws to make everything in the kingdom ‘just right. In the Arthashastra, everyday life in all its multifarious activities comes in for careful regulation and adjustment, from the ‘cooking pot to the crown.[20] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 9. The aim of this paper is to study the teachings of Arthashastra in order to determine its relevance and yield insights into military strategy and warfare with emphasis on counter insurgency and counter terrorism. Hypothesis 10. The concepts of defence and war as enunciated by Kautilya are as relevant in the 21st century as it was in the 3rd century BC. Justification for the Study 11. The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as â€Å"Science of Politics†, â€Å"Treatise on Polity†[21] or the â€Å"Science of Political Economy†.[22] However, the best description of the word comes from Heinrich Zimmer who translates the word as â€Å"Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War†.[23] 12. Two thousand three hundred years ago, Kautilya compiled the Arthashastra and with it he proved to be a kingmaker as he enabled the inception of the Maurya dynasty. The Arthashastra has endured the test of time and it has since withstood the test of credibility. We will be enriching ourselves if we learn and grasp even a fraction of the wisdom that Kautilya embodied. 13. Our ancient scriptures have been neglected and Western principles and teachings propounded in our literature, including military literature due to ignorance of students and insufficient importance by teachers. 14. Kautilyas treatise enraptures in many ways, the complexity of our current world. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. 15. Study of his military strategy will throw some light on the in-depth knowledge of warfare in ancient India and will provide important lessons for conventional and unconventional warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. The lecture by Dr Gopalji Malviya, sparked the inquisitiveness and determination to study the Arthashastra. Scope 16. The scope of this paper is restricted to the study and analysis of the aspects related to warfare as enunciated by Kautilya. The study does not include his precepts on the social, political and economical structure of an ideal state. Though Kautilya has treated foreign policy as an important part of warfare, only brief mention where necessary would be made. The famous Mandala theory[24] has hence been consciously left out. Also the actual battle fighting and formations described in detail have been omitted to maintain focus on strategy. The study will cover the relevance of Arthashastra and its importance for modern warfare, counter insurgency and counter terrorism. 17. Though a sincere effort has been made to cover the relevance, trying to expound on Kautilyas immense wisdom presents a remarkable challenge. Therefore, throughout this dissertation the work of Kautilya is quoted to speak for itself. Methods of Data Collection 18. There are a number of books written on Arthashastra. Though some books are in Sanskrit and some are literal translations, some books are available in college library on the Arthashastra notably by LN Rangarajan, R Shamashastry, MV Krishna Rao and Roger Boeshe. Some data is also available on the internet and journals. A bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the paper. Likely sources include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors as mentioned above. (b) Papers submitted by researchers. (c) Information available over the internet. (d) Discussions with teachers and professors of history. Dr Gopalji Malviya was gracious enough to grant some valuable time for a ‘one on one discussion. His encouragement, advice and passion for the subject made the research meaningful. Organisation of the Dissertation 19. The dissertation is organised into six chapters. Chapters one and two deal with introducing the subject and the methodology of the research. It is proposed to study the subject under the following heads:- (a) Chapter III Principles of military strategy in Arthashastra. (b) Chapter IV Relevance in 21st century conventional warfare. (c) Chapter V Relevance in fourth generation warfare. (d) Chapter VI Conclusion. CHAPTER III PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY STRATEGY IN ARTHASHASTRA 20. Kautilya has enunciated many military strategies in the Arthashastra. Most importantly he does not seem to have made much distinction between military strategy and that of statecraft. He believed that warfare is an extension and an integral part of statecraft.[25] He has covered an array of strategies over a vast canvas from the actual fighting and planning, to training and deceit. Some of these will be discussed in this chapter. Planning a Campaign 21. Kautilyas most striking doctrine is his discussion of planning a campaign -â€Å"The activity of one setting out on a campaign deals with the factors to be taken into account before the king (state) decides that it is in the states interest to commence the campaign†.[26] Kautilya brings out the various facets of planning a campaign. He enunciates eight factors which are to be critically considered for determining whether a campaign would end in success, prior to making preparations for war. The factors that he considered for a successful campaign included Power (military, intellectual and morale), place and time, revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Few of the factors are discussed below:- (a) Power. According to Kautilya, the most important factor is of power. Power included the military might, and the economic strength of the adversary, and also the intellectual power, and t the ability of the enemy to carry out a objective analysis and not to be swayed by emotion or opinions. He even lists out the order of the three constituents of power to be Intellectual power, Military might and Enthusiasm and morale in the decreasing order of importance. Kautilya says that though the mightier king may be endowed with better war machinery and that he can buy heroic fighters, the Power of good analysis and judgement (which include intelligence and the knowledge of politics the two eyes of the king) are superior to sheer military strength. The operational ‘fFactor of fForce as spelt out in present day warfare encompasses the tangible (personnel, weapons, mobility, fire power and logistics) and the intangible elements (leadership, morale, discipline, training, doctrine and mo tivation).)[27] The human element that is the power of good counsel and intellectual power has been given the highest importance by Kautilya, unlike modern thinkers who give more importance to the military might. The intangible human elements are difficult to quantify and hence tend to tilt the balance if not correctly assessed. Hence to compare two opponents as emphasised inemphasised in the Arthashastra ,Arthashastra, their power in all aspects needs to be compared.[28] Kautilya gives least importance to morale but adds that ‘Tthe night before the battle is to be used for preparing for battle and building up the morale[29] of troops.[30] (b) Place/Terrain[31]. The next important factor to be considered is the place andplace and the terrain.[32] Employment of infantry, horses, elephants and chariots have been given the due importance with respect to terrain[33]. He has articulated that the land being used for conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations. This terrain is a smaller manifestation of the operational ‘Factor of Space. as given in the present day references on Operational Factors. The present day conventional warfare propagates that the free movement of ones forces and the space available are crucial for success in war. An example of denial of space is the concept of Blockade. Thus the importance of space was evident to Kautilya except the new concept of cyberspace. However his postulate that on each kind of space the king should undertake such works to increase his power[34] is still relevant. (c) Time/Campaigning Season. Kautilya has laid stress on timing[35] and selection of season for an expedition. He recommends that the climate and the time or duration of a campaign (day, night, fortnight, month, season) is of great importance. His concept of space is replicated as he articulates that the time of conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations.[36] He also states the various kinds of warfare and weapons to be used in different seasons . ‘An army consisting mostly of elephants should be used in rains or when plenty of water is available, camels and horses may be used in little rain or areas with muddy water.[37] The operational factors in modern warfare give serious consideration to the factor of time. Time has further been divided into preparation time, warning time, reaction time, decision cycle time etc. Durations of the campaign and the interval between two consecutive operations should beare kept short to be maintain a high tempo. This is brought out by Kautilya when he recommends that ‘whenever the king is superior, he shall not waste any time and should proceed against the enemy whenever by doing so the enemy can be weakened or crushed. Due to new technologies the pace of thein present day warfare new technologies are enlarging the area of combat is growing and at the same time compressing the time factor is being compressed. Thus tThe critical evaluation of time, and the various weather parameters and advices such as theand terms for planningfor planning a long, medium and short war as given in the Arthashastra remain relevant even today. (d) Troop Mobilisation. He Kautilya lays down the criterias in great detail which are required for mobilising each kind of troops. like Tthe standing army, is to be chosen if the threat is great and from well trained troops, however the territorial army is to be chosen if the enemy is weak. Tthe militia or is to be mobilised if the enemy is weak and it is only a law and order problem. Ffriendly or allied forces. are to be used when the king and the ally have the same objective. Without any remorse he adds that the jungle tribes should be used when there is a gain to the king, whether they win or lose in fighting the enemy ‘Just as a Chandala stands to benefit when a wild dog fights a wild boar. Combat potential concept in the present day concepts operational art states that combat potential is converted into Combat power by mobilisation of troops and start of conflict.[38] Even Kautilya has rightly emphasised the importance of troops and thus their bearing on the factor of for ce. Kautilya prefers an army of trained Kshatriyas[39] or a large force composed of Sudras and Vaishyas[40]. He was the first Indian statesman to consider the lower castes to fight wars. (e) Other factors. The other factors he discusses in planning include the revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Thus Kautilya has also brought out the fact which present day planners also abide by; of not planning or initiating military action without adequate forces and in the presence of unreasonable military or political constraints. Though most planning is valid only till the first contact with the enemy, still a complex almost mathematical analysis of gains and losses was carried out to justify going to war. (f) Power Place Time relation. The relationship of power, place and time to wage a war had various interpretations during that period. However Kautilya has clearly enunciated that though each of these components is important, none is more important than the other and all are interdependent. The fact that Kautilya understood the concept of space-time-force relationship and dynamics is a revelation. He postulated that only when the king finds that he is superior in power space and time shall he proceed against the enemy. â€Å"Force is important for a campaign; just as the collision of an unbaked mud-vessel with a similar vessel is destructive to both, so war with an equal king brings ruin to both†¦place (space) is important as a dog, seated in a convenient place, can drag a crocodile and a crocodile in low ground can drag a dog†¦time is critical as during the daytime the crow kills the owl and at night the owl the crow.†[41]His analysis of Force-Space-Time in the quot e shows that the correct forces need to be deployed in the correct terrain at a time of their choosing for maximum effect. The analogy of the crocodile being dragged by a dog would refer to a vastly superior force being inexorably drawn away from their base into an area of operations that is favourable to the smaller enemy (large conventional forces fighting insurgents in urban areas). All the factors listed by Kautilya need to be considered whilst planning a modern day conventional or unconventional campaign. Internal Security 22. Physical Security. The security of own kingdom consisted of physical security and also the capability to prevent treachery, revolts and rebellion.[42] The frontier post and forts (consisting of mountains, rivers, jungle and deserts) provided physical security. The details of fortifications are placed at the Appendix _______. Thus the importance given to internal security was immense. Demobilisation of troops was carried out in times of peace to save money and they were mobilised again for conquests. However the forces guarding the forts, royal property and the kings own guards were never disbanded, thus ensuring the importance of internal security. Besides Kautilya was extremely wary of revolts, rebellion and the ability of spies trying to influence the people by wrong newstreachery. 23. Control Over Army. Various means were utilised by the king to maintain control over his army including the Chiefs of Army such as paying them well, keeping them under surveillance and testing their integrity to prevent any rebellion.. Some of these measures including shrewd and ruthless ones are enumerated below:- (e) They were paid well to prevent them from being tempted by bribes by the enemy. (f) They were kept under surveillance of clandestine agents, especially to see that they did not succumb to the instigations of the enemy. (g) Their integrity was tested to weed out the cowardly. Also the (h) Tthe wings of the Army were kept under the control of more than one chief so that mutual fear and suspicion would ensure their loyalty. (i) 24. (a) Those suspected of treachery were posted to remote areas while their families were kept in the capital as hostages. Imperativeness of Security. Kautilya believed that offensive action is based on defensive power. His insistence of for internal security clearly underlined underlines the fact that before forces are committed to the main task all own vital and vulnerable targets should be secured. In fact he even advices the king to keep the treasury and army under his control. In case of a threat of revolt, Kautilya advices the king,not to remain behind in the capital and to allow his Commander to lead a campaign and to leave it to his Commander and remain behind in the capital, .in case of a threat of revolt. 24. This coupled with the fact that he attached great importance to controlling his army brings out the fact that internal security must be the sound foundation for a successful campaign. 25. Threat of Coup. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others and be involved in it. He paid great importance to the training of the army and to the loyalty of the soldiers. Towards this he advocated the use of spies especially from threat of a coup. Kautilya recommended that â€Å"secret agents, prostitutes, artisans and actors as well as elders of the army should ascertain with diligence, the loyalty or disloyalty of soldiers†.[43] Types of Warfare 26. According to Kautilya, the king had two main responsibilities which included the protection of own state from external aggression and enlargement of territory by conquest[44]. He thought there was a ‘science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. [45] Kautilya has described four types of War[46] as follows:- (a) Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel. This is the exercise of diplomacy to win wars. This is to be utilised when the king is in a weaker position and engaging in battle would not be wise or beneficial. (b) Prakasayuddha or Open Warfare. This is the form of normal warfare which follows all laid down rules of fighting a battle. Open warfare, Kautilya declared, is ‘most righteous,'[47] but he was willing to use any and all kinds of warfare to achieve consolidation and expansion of the kingdom. Kautilya advised the king that â€Å"When he is superior in troops, and when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.†[48] This was quite unlike the teachings in the Indian epics which emphasised the Dharmayudha or ethical warfare. (c ) Kutayuddha or Concealed Warfare. This form of warfare includes psychological warfare and treachery in the enemys camp. Also known as Guerrilla warfare.[49] The Chinese civil war by the Peoples Liberation Army, the Vietcong in the Vietnam war, the Kosovo Liberation Army in Kosovo are examples of using mobile military tactics to defeat a stronger force. and guerrilla warfare. (d) Gudayuddha or Clandestine / Silent War. This type of war is waged by covert means to achieve the objective. It includes means to win without fighting the battle by means such as assassinating the enemy. Also called silent war, it is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministers—and unknowingly, the people—all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.[50] Roger Boesche has said in his book on Arthashastra that â€Å"silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker I know of has discussed†.[51] The assassination of Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi carried out towards furthering separatist movements are examples of this kind of warfare. In silent warfare, secrecy is paramount, and, from a passage quoted earlier, t he king can prevail only by â€Å"maintaining secrecy when striking again and again.†[52] Military Organisation 27. The military organisation is covered in great detail in Arthashastra. Maintenance of the states armies, troops and the organisational structure[53] of various components are still valid. The organisation was based on the number ten[54] and as today we follow the relationship of three. In the olden days since space was limited, it was perhaps possible to have a commander controlling ten subordinate commanders.[55] 28. Managing the Army. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army which include not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale etc. Kautilya states that armies should never be abandoned, left leaderless or totally merged into someone elses army.ItThe army should always have adequate reinforcements[56]. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army. He includes many factors such as not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale, an angry army, a dispersed one, having to fight in an unsuitable terrain or season, an army which has been encircled, obstructed or cut off from reinforcements and supplies and most importantly one without leaders. He makes an incisive observation when he states that an unhonoured army, an unpaid army an exhausted army will fight if honoured, paid and allowed to relax respectively but a dishonoured army with resentment in its heart will not do so. H e further gives importance to leadership qualities by stating that an army repulsed will fight if rallied by heroic men unlike an army abandoned by its chief. This is as true today, even in the age of C4ISR. and where troops or ships are spread across the globe. It is an accepted fact that in the absence of an inspired leader victory goes to the stronger (numerically superior) side. He also adds that even if the army faces extreme reverses like loss of capital or death of a commander it will still fight unless they are cut off from their king and leader. He stated the pre requisite for an effective leader which is true even today that he should keep in mind two fundamental elements, the mission and the people. The king is advised to guard his army against troubles created by the enemy and told to strike at the weak points of the enemys army similar to the critical vulnerabilities in JOPP. Algorithim of Victory. 29. When two kings are at war, he advises his king to sue for peace with a stronger king, accept the peace offer of a equally strong king and to destroy the weaker king.[57] He justifies going to war by the natural enemy concept[58] which states that if the conqueror does not eliminate the enemy, the enemy will eliminate him. After victory it is vitally important to consolidate on newly acquired territory so as to be able to embark on further conquests. He clarifies that a defeated army should never be harassed to the point of making it so desperate that it will return to fight with vengeance.[59] Oligarchies / Coalitions 30. A whole section is dedicated to oligarchies or confederacy. In the present world such a communion is exhibited by coalition forces. While accepting that these coalitions are strong entities he frames various means to fight and put up resistance against them. As an oligarchy is defined as a unassailable cohesive unit, sowing dissension, using deceit, treachery and playing on the differences amongst them has been suggested as measures to defeat them. In the present world, the attempt to break the coalition by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is an example of this tactics.[60] Strategies for Weak King 31. Kautilya has written extensively on the response of a weak king when being attacked by a stronger king. When confronted by a superior power Kautilya advices the weak king to find a way to survive to fight another day, preserving â€Å"his body, not wealth; for, what regret can there be for wealth that is impermanent?†[61] Kautilya did not however expect the weak king to give in to the conqueror without a fight and recommended various measures which included use of ‘diplomatic or concealed warfare and instigating a revolt in the enemy camp.As a desperate measure he even advocated a powerful speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments to be given to the superior king. People and Popular Support 32. Kautilya maintained that people were more important than forts and armies. As he put it, â€Å"one should only seek a fortress with men.†[62] Kautilya urged the king to be popular with the people and to endeavour to secure the welfare of his subjects. The Arthashastra has emphasised on not causing harm even to the subjects of the enemy king. In fact extra ordinary measures are recommended to win over the people of the enemy land. Their customs had to be respected and their gods had to be revered by the new king. After the war, carrying away loot was forbidden. 33. The important six fold foreign policy[63] has been left out due to dissertation restrictions. The gamut of strategies from the planning aspects, the types of war to the very crucial support of the people will be will be contextually examined for their relevance in the next chapters. CHAPTER IV RELEVANCE IN 21ST CENTURY CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 34. Realist School. In this chapter the present day conventional warfare will be examined as seen through the prism of Kautilya. Kautilya is widely known to have preached the Realist School of thought which advised rulers to maximise power through political rather than military means. He preached that the ends justified the means including the use of ruse, deceit[64], cunning and subterfuge[65]. However Kautilya has discussed conventional warfare in great detail and has also given the option of frontal attack on the enemy.[66] 35. Role and Mission. In an increasingly complex world, the missions of the armed forces are correspondingly more diverse and complex than ever before. In times of peace and tension, the armed forces are a powerful instrument of the nations foreign policy.[67] In times of crisis and conflict, they are the foremost expression of the nations will and intent. Suffice to say that the expectations of a nation from its military are diverse and wide-ranging. Therefore, modern warfare is not restricted to war alone. Rather, they encompass the military, political, economic and the diplomatic aspects. 36. Nature of War. War or conflict has two different characteristics. One, which represents progress and change, and the other, which represents constancy and permanency. On one hand, the dynamics of progress and change depend much upon a commanders imagination, innovativeness, grasp of technology and complexity. While on the other, the Arthashastra is testimony to the constant and unchanging nature of war. Studies of military history show that certain features constantly recur; that certain relations between type of action and success often remain the same; that certain circumstances and moments have time and time again, proved decisive. Past being the prologue of future, underscores the relevance and significance of studies of military history such as propagated by the Arthashastra. Joint Intelligence Preparation of Operational Environment 37. Factor of Space. The r Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare ARTHASHASTRA AND ITS RELEVANCE IN MODERN WARFARE AND COUNTERINSURGENCY/COUNTERTERRORISM PHILOSOPHY â€Å"In the happiness of his subjects lies the kings happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects†¦An archer letting off an arrow may or may not kill a single man, but a wise man using his intellect can kill even reaching unto the very womb.† The Arthashastra INTRODUCTION SITUATING THE ARTHASHASTRA Historical Background 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta[1] was the key advisor to and the genius behind the strategy undertaken by the king Chandra Gupta Maurya (317-293 B.C.) who stopped the advance of Alexander the Greats successors and introduced the Golden Age of India.[2] The Mauryan kingdom united and amalgamated the Indian sub-continent into a single entity for the first time, thus creating the concept of Indian nationhood. The Mauryan Empire extended from the Persian border in the West to Burma in the East covered most of peninsular India.[3] The empire lasted 150 years until about 180 BC, after which the empire dissociated[4] into several fragments. Kautilya was the chancellor to Chandra Gupta Maurya, and he composed the Arthashastra to counsel a ruler on how to defeat ones enemies and rule for the general good. The Arthashastra was very influential in ancient India up to the 12th century AD, when it faded from the public eye. The text, however, reappeared in 1904 and was publis hed in English in 1915.[5] 2. Artha[6] of Arthashastra stands for wealth, but it has a much wider significance. As enunciated by Kautilya, wealth of a nation is both the territory of the state and the inhabitants of the state. Thus economics is at the heart of Arthashastra. A healthy economy and loyal subjects can be achieved by having an adequate balance between the treasury of the state and the welfare of the people, was preached by Kautilya. This was to be achieved by maintaining law and order and adequate administrative machinery.[7] Thus the Arthashastra also contains the enforcement of laws (Dandaniti) and the details of the organisation of civil service and duties of state officials.[8] Arthashastra Overview 3. Written about 300 B.C., Kautilyas work was pitched to teach with the various intricacies of governance and politics to the king.[9] Kautilya has covered the subject in depth and offers insights into various spheres of statecraft, war and diplomacy. Kautilya wished his king to become a world conqueror[10] hence his analysis of the types of war, his doctrine of assassination, sowing discord amongst the enemy, use of spies, religion, superstition, along with the use of women to create conflicts in the enemy camp are engrossing and unputdownable.[11] 4. Books of Treatise. The Arthashastra is divided into 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6,000 slokas.[12] The books are arranged in a manner that the initial books deal with internal administration and the later books on a states relations with its neighbours. Interestingly, there exists a very prominent mention of the ancient Navy as he has mentioned the ‘superintendent of ships in Book II. He may have foreseen the advantages of a sea borne force and a Navy.[13] 5. Science of Arthashastra. Kautilya believed that a rulers duties included the internal administration of the country, protection of the state from external aggression, maintenance of law and order within the state, and the welfare of the people. New territory had to be acquired by alliance or conquest for the prosperity of the state and also in the political environment existing then, which had many kings, anyone content with his own territory was likely to fall prey to hedgemonistic ambitions of the other. 6. Spectrum of Arthashastra. Kautilya argued that a nation could never achieve prosperity under a foreign ruler; indicating that independence was a pre-requisite for prosperity and economic progress. At the macro level, the Arthashastra covers the entire gamut of human society, the establishment and continuance of a nation state, foreign policy, war, civil law and economics. At the other end of the spectrum, the book delves into the building blocks of a society by clearly defining standardised weights[14], measures and time, values and taxes on commodities[15], metallurgical standards[16], sources of state revenue[17] and a detailed analysis of the composition of an army and forts.[18] 7. National Security. Kautilya insisted that all threats to national security must be eliminated at any cost to the state, while no enemy must be privy to the inner machinations and processes of ones own state â€Å"Like a tortoise, the king (state) shall draw in any limb of his that is exposed.†[19] Internal stability was the harbinger of economic well being. However, to maintain internal and external security, Kautilya proposed a massive network of spies and agents operating within the state and also in surrounding and enemy states. Detailed descriptions of espionage and counter-espionage activities, physical punishments and torture for internal security set this work apart from any other political treatise. 8. The Arthashastra is thus a mixture of both what we applaud today and what we consider to be reprehensible. Kautilya wrote his book about 2300 years ago when extreme forms of governance were commonplace and the primary task of the ruling monarch was primacy of his state and a policy of expansionism. While Kautilya was quite willing to reward those who served the state, he seemed to have an obsession with using the discipline of the laws to make everything in the kingdom ‘just right. In the Arthashastra, everyday life in all its multifarious activities comes in for careful regulation and adjustment, from the ‘cooking pot to the crown.[20] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 9. The aim of this paper is to study the teachings of Arthashastra in order to determine its relevance and yield insights into military strategy and warfare with emphasis on counter insurgency and counter terrorism. Hypothesis 10. The concepts of defence and war as enunciated by Kautilya are as relevant in the 21st century as it was in the 3rd century BC. Justification for the Study 11. The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as â€Å"Science of Politics†, â€Å"Treatise on Polity†[21] or the â€Å"Science of Political Economy†.[22] However, the best description of the word comes from Heinrich Zimmer who translates the word as â€Å"Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War†.[23] 12. Two thousand three hundred years ago, Kautilya compiled the Arthashastra and with it he proved to be a kingmaker as he enabled the inception of the Maurya dynasty. The Arthashastra has endured the test of time and it has since withstood the test of credibility. We will be enriching ourselves if we learn and grasp even a fraction of the wisdom that Kautilya embodied. 13. Our ancient scriptures have been neglected and Western principles and teachings propounded in our literature, including military literature due to ignorance of students and insufficient importance by teachers. 14. Kautilyas treatise enraptures in many ways, the complexity of our current world. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. 15. Study of his military strategy will throw some light on the in-depth knowledge of warfare in ancient India and will provide important lessons for conventional and unconventional warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. The lecture by Dr Gopalji Malviya, sparked the inquisitiveness and determination to study the Arthashastra. Scope 16. The scope of this paper is restricted to the study and analysis of the aspects related to warfare as enunciated by Kautilya. The study does not include his precepts on the social, political and economical structure of an ideal state. Though Kautilya has treated foreign policy as an important part of warfare, only brief mention where necessary would be made. The famous Mandala theory[24] has hence been consciously left out. Also the actual battle fighting and formations described in detail have been omitted to maintain focus on strategy. The study will cover the relevance of Arthashastra and its importance for modern warfare, counter insurgency and counter terrorism. 17. Though a sincere effort has been made to cover the relevance, trying to expound on Kautilyas immense wisdom presents a remarkable challenge. Therefore, throughout this dissertation the work of Kautilya is quoted to speak for itself. Methods of Data Collection 18. There are a number of books written on Arthashastra. Though some books are in Sanskrit and some are literal translations, some books are available in college library on the Arthashastra notably by LN Rangarajan, R Shamashastry, MV Krishna Rao and Roger Boeshe. Some data is also available on the internet and journals. A bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the paper. Likely sources include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors as mentioned above. (b) Papers submitted by researchers. (c) Information available over the internet. (d) Discussions with teachers and professors of history. Dr Gopalji Malviya was gracious enough to grant some valuable time for a ‘one on one discussion. His encouragement, advice and passion for the subject made the research meaningful. Organisation of the Dissertation 19. The dissertation is organised into six chapters. Chapters one and two deal with introducing the subject and the methodology of the research. It is proposed to study the subject under the following heads:- (a) Chapter III Principles of military strategy in Arthashastra. (b) Chapter IV Relevance in 21st century conventional warfare. (c) Chapter V Relevance in fourth generation warfare. (d) Chapter VI Conclusion. CHAPTER III PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY STRATEGY IN ARTHASHASTRA 20. Kautilya has enunciated many military strategies in the Arthashastra. Most importantly he does not seem to have made much distinction between military strategy and that of statecraft. He believed that warfare is an extension and an integral part of statecraft.[25] He has covered an array of strategies over a vast canvas from the actual fighting and planning, to training and deceit. Some of these will be discussed in this chapter. Planning a Campaign 21. Kautilyas most striking doctrine is his discussion of planning a campaign -â€Å"The activity of one setting out on a campaign deals with the factors to be taken into account before the king (state) decides that it is in the states interest to commence the campaign†.[26] Kautilya brings out the various facets of planning a campaign. He enunciates eight factors which are to be critically considered for determining whether a campaign would end in success, prior to making preparations for war. The factors that he considered for a successful campaign included Power (military, intellectual and morale), place and time, revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Few of the factors are discussed below:- (a) Power. According to Kautilya, the most important factor is of power. Power included the military might, and the economic strength of the adversary, and also the intellectual power, and t the ability of the enemy to carry out a objective analysis and not to be swayed by emotion or opinions. He even lists out the order of the three constituents of power to be Intellectual power, Military might and Enthusiasm and morale in the decreasing order of importance. Kautilya says that though the mightier king may be endowed with better war machinery and that he can buy heroic fighters, the Power of good analysis and judgement (which include intelligence and the knowledge of politics the two eyes of the king) are superior to sheer military strength. The operational ‘fFactor of fForce as spelt out in present day warfare encompasses the tangible (personnel, weapons, mobility, fire power and logistics) and the intangible elements (leadership, morale, discipline, training, doctrine and mo tivation).)[27] The human element that is the power of good counsel and intellectual power has been given the highest importance by Kautilya, unlike modern thinkers who give more importance to the military might. The intangible human elements are difficult to quantify and hence tend to tilt the balance if not correctly assessed. Hence to compare two opponents as emphasised inemphasised in the Arthashastra ,Arthashastra, their power in all aspects needs to be compared.[28] Kautilya gives least importance to morale but adds that ‘Tthe night before the battle is to be used for preparing for battle and building up the morale[29] of troops.[30] (b) Place/Terrain[31]. The next important factor to be considered is the place andplace and the terrain.[32] Employment of infantry, horses, elephants and chariots have been given the due importance with respect to terrain[33]. He has articulated that the land being used for conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations. This terrain is a smaller manifestation of the operational ‘Factor of Space. as given in the present day references on Operational Factors. The present day conventional warfare propagates that the free movement of ones forces and the space available are crucial for success in war. An example of denial of space is the concept of Blockade. Thus the importance of space was evident to Kautilya except the new concept of cyberspace. However his postulate that on each kind of space the king should undertake such works to increase his power[34] is still relevant. (c) Time/Campaigning Season. Kautilya has laid stress on timing[35] and selection of season for an expedition. He recommends that the climate and the time or duration of a campaign (day, night, fortnight, month, season) is of great importance. His concept of space is replicated as he articulates that the time of conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations.[36] He also states the various kinds of warfare and weapons to be used in different seasons . ‘An army consisting mostly of elephants should be used in rains or when plenty of water is available, camels and horses may be used in little rain or areas with muddy water.[37] The operational factors in modern warfare give serious consideration to the factor of time. Time has further been divided into preparation time, warning time, reaction time, decision cycle time etc. Durations of the campaign and the interval between two consecutive operations should beare kept short to be maintain a high tempo. This is brought out by Kautilya when he recommends that ‘whenever the king is superior, he shall not waste any time and should proceed against the enemy whenever by doing so the enemy can be weakened or crushed. Due to new technologies the pace of thein present day warfare new technologies are enlarging the area of combat is growing and at the same time compressing the time factor is being compressed. Thus tThe critical evaluation of time, and the various weather parameters and advices such as theand terms for planningfor planning a long, medium and short war as given in the Arthashastra remain relevant even today. (d) Troop Mobilisation. He Kautilya lays down the criterias in great detail which are required for mobilising each kind of troops. like Tthe standing army, is to be chosen if the threat is great and from well trained troops, however the territorial army is to be chosen if the enemy is weak. Tthe militia or is to be mobilised if the enemy is weak and it is only a law and order problem. Ffriendly or allied forces. are to be used when the king and the ally have the same objective. Without any remorse he adds that the jungle tribes should be used when there is a gain to the king, whether they win or lose in fighting the enemy ‘Just as a Chandala stands to benefit when a wild dog fights a wild boar. Combat potential concept in the present day concepts operational art states that combat potential is converted into Combat power by mobilisation of troops and start of conflict.[38] Even Kautilya has rightly emphasised the importance of troops and thus their bearing on the factor of for ce. Kautilya prefers an army of trained Kshatriyas[39] or a large force composed of Sudras and Vaishyas[40]. He was the first Indian statesman to consider the lower castes to fight wars. (e) Other factors. The other factors he discusses in planning include the revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Thus Kautilya has also brought out the fact which present day planners also abide by; of not planning or initiating military action without adequate forces and in the presence of unreasonable military or political constraints. Though most planning is valid only till the first contact with the enemy, still a complex almost mathematical analysis of gains and losses was carried out to justify going to war. (f) Power Place Time relation. The relationship of power, place and time to wage a war had various interpretations during that period. However Kautilya has clearly enunciated that though each of these components is important, none is more important than the other and all are interdependent. The fact that Kautilya understood the concept of space-time-force relationship and dynamics is a revelation. He postulated that only when the king finds that he is superior in power space and time shall he proceed against the enemy. â€Å"Force is important for a campaign; just as the collision of an unbaked mud-vessel with a similar vessel is destructive to both, so war with an equal king brings ruin to both†¦place (space) is important as a dog, seated in a convenient place, can drag a crocodile and a crocodile in low ground can drag a dog†¦time is critical as during the daytime the crow kills the owl and at night the owl the crow.†[41]His analysis of Force-Space-Time in the quot e shows that the correct forces need to be deployed in the correct terrain at a time of their choosing for maximum effect. The analogy of the crocodile being dragged by a dog would refer to a vastly superior force being inexorably drawn away from their base into an area of operations that is favourable to the smaller enemy (large conventional forces fighting insurgents in urban areas). All the factors listed by Kautilya need to be considered whilst planning a modern day conventional or unconventional campaign. Internal Security 22. Physical Security. The security of own kingdom consisted of physical security and also the capability to prevent treachery, revolts and rebellion.[42] The frontier post and forts (consisting of mountains, rivers, jungle and deserts) provided physical security. The details of fortifications are placed at the Appendix _______. Thus the importance given to internal security was immense. Demobilisation of troops was carried out in times of peace to save money and they were mobilised again for conquests. However the forces guarding the forts, royal property and the kings own guards were never disbanded, thus ensuring the importance of internal security. Besides Kautilya was extremely wary of revolts, rebellion and the ability of spies trying to influence the people by wrong newstreachery. 23. Control Over Army. Various means were utilised by the king to maintain control over his army including the Chiefs of Army such as paying them well, keeping them under surveillance and testing their integrity to prevent any rebellion.. Some of these measures including shrewd and ruthless ones are enumerated below:- (e) They were paid well to prevent them from being tempted by bribes by the enemy. (f) They were kept under surveillance of clandestine agents, especially to see that they did not succumb to the instigations of the enemy. (g) Their integrity was tested to weed out the cowardly. Also the (h) Tthe wings of the Army were kept under the control of more than one chief so that mutual fear and suspicion would ensure their loyalty. (i) 24. (a) Those suspected of treachery were posted to remote areas while their families were kept in the capital as hostages. Imperativeness of Security. Kautilya believed that offensive action is based on defensive power. His insistence of for internal security clearly underlined underlines the fact that before forces are committed to the main task all own vital and vulnerable targets should be secured. In fact he even advices the king to keep the treasury and army under his control. In case of a threat of revolt, Kautilya advices the king,not to remain behind in the capital and to allow his Commander to lead a campaign and to leave it to his Commander and remain behind in the capital, .in case of a threat of revolt. 24. This coupled with the fact that he attached great importance to controlling his army brings out the fact that internal security must be the sound foundation for a successful campaign. 25. Threat of Coup. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others and be involved in it. He paid great importance to the training of the army and to the loyalty of the soldiers. Towards this he advocated the use of spies especially from threat of a coup. Kautilya recommended that â€Å"secret agents, prostitutes, artisans and actors as well as elders of the army should ascertain with diligence, the loyalty or disloyalty of soldiers†.[43] Types of Warfare 26. According to Kautilya, the king had two main responsibilities which included the protection of own state from external aggression and enlargement of territory by conquest[44]. He thought there was a ‘science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. [45] Kautilya has described four types of War[46] as follows:- (a) Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel. This is the exercise of diplomacy to win wars. This is to be utilised when the king is in a weaker position and engaging in battle would not be wise or beneficial. (b) Prakasayuddha or Open Warfare. This is the form of normal warfare which follows all laid down rules of fighting a battle. Open warfare, Kautilya declared, is ‘most righteous,'[47] but he was willing to use any and all kinds of warfare to achieve consolidation and expansion of the kingdom. Kautilya advised the king that â€Å"When he is superior in troops, and when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.†[48] This was quite unlike the teachings in the Indian epics which emphasised the Dharmayudha or ethical warfare. (c ) Kutayuddha or Concealed Warfare. This form of warfare includes psychological warfare and treachery in the enemys camp. Also known as Guerrilla warfare.[49] The Chinese civil war by the Peoples Liberation Army, the Vietcong in the Vietnam war, the Kosovo Liberation Army in Kosovo are examples of using mobile military tactics to defeat a stronger force. and guerrilla warfare. (d) Gudayuddha or Clandestine / Silent War. This type of war is waged by covert means to achieve the objective. It includes means to win without fighting the battle by means such as assassinating the enemy. Also called silent war, it is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministers—and unknowingly, the people—all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.[50] Roger Boesche has said in his book on Arthashastra that â€Å"silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker I know of has discussed†.[51] The assassination of Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi carried out towards furthering separatist movements are examples of this kind of warfare. In silent warfare, secrecy is paramount, and, from a passage quoted earlier, t he king can prevail only by â€Å"maintaining secrecy when striking again and again.†[52] Military Organisation 27. The military organisation is covered in great detail in Arthashastra. Maintenance of the states armies, troops and the organisational structure[53] of various components are still valid. The organisation was based on the number ten[54] and as today we follow the relationship of three. In the olden days since space was limited, it was perhaps possible to have a commander controlling ten subordinate commanders.[55] 28. Managing the Army. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army which include not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale etc. Kautilya states that armies should never be abandoned, left leaderless or totally merged into someone elses army.ItThe army should always have adequate reinforcements[56]. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army. He includes many factors such as not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale, an angry army, a dispersed one, having to fight in an unsuitable terrain or season, an army which has been encircled, obstructed or cut off from reinforcements and supplies and most importantly one without leaders. He makes an incisive observation when he states that an unhonoured army, an unpaid army an exhausted army will fight if honoured, paid and allowed to relax respectively but a dishonoured army with resentment in its heart will not do so. H e further gives importance to leadership qualities by stating that an army repulsed will fight if rallied by heroic men unlike an army abandoned by its chief. This is as true today, even in the age of C4ISR. and where troops or ships are spread across the globe. It is an accepted fact that in the absence of an inspired leader victory goes to the stronger (numerically superior) side. He also adds that even if the army faces extreme reverses like loss of capital or death of a commander it will still fight unless they are cut off from their king and leader. He stated the pre requisite for an effective leader which is true even today that he should keep in mind two fundamental elements, the mission and the people. The king is advised to guard his army against troubles created by the enemy and told to strike at the weak points of the enemys army similar to the critical vulnerabilities in JOPP. Algorithim of Victory. 29. When two kings are at war, he advises his king to sue for peace with a stronger king, accept the peace offer of a equally strong king and to destroy the weaker king.[57] He justifies going to war by the natural enemy concept[58] which states that if the conqueror does not eliminate the enemy, the enemy will eliminate him. After victory it is vitally important to consolidate on newly acquired territory so as to be able to embark on further conquests. He clarifies that a defeated army should never be harassed to the point of making it so desperate that it will return to fight with vengeance.[59] Oligarchies / Coalitions 30. A whole section is dedicated to oligarchies or confederacy. In the present world such a communion is exhibited by coalition forces. While accepting that these coalitions are strong entities he frames various means to fight and put up resistance against them. As an oligarchy is defined as a unassailable cohesive unit, sowing dissension, using deceit, treachery and playing on the differences amongst them has been suggested as measures to defeat them. In the present world, the attempt to break the coalition by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is an example of this tactics.[60] Strategies for Weak King 31. Kautilya has written extensively on the response of a weak king when being attacked by a stronger king. When confronted by a superior power Kautilya advices the weak king to find a way to survive to fight another day, preserving â€Å"his body, not wealth; for, what regret can there be for wealth that is impermanent?†[61] Kautilya did not however expect the weak king to give in to the conqueror without a fight and recommended various measures which included use of ‘diplomatic or concealed warfare and instigating a revolt in the enemy camp.As a desperate measure he even advocated a powerful speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments to be given to the superior king. People and Popular Support 32. Kautilya maintained that people were more important than forts and armies. As he put it, â€Å"one should only seek a fortress with men.†[62] Kautilya urged the king to be popular with the people and to endeavour to secure the welfare of his subjects. The Arthashastra has emphasised on not causing harm even to the subjects of the enemy king. In fact extra ordinary measures are recommended to win over the people of the enemy land. Their customs had to be respected and their gods had to be revered by the new king. After the war, carrying away loot was forbidden. 33. The important six fold foreign policy[63] has been left out due to dissertation restrictions. The gamut of strategies from the planning aspects, the types of war to the very crucial support of the people will be will be contextually examined for their relevance in the next chapters. CHAPTER IV RELEVANCE IN 21ST CENTURY CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 34. Realist School. In this chapter the present day conventional warfare will be examined as seen through the prism of Kautilya. Kautilya is widely known to have preached the Realist School of thought which advised rulers to maximise power through political rather than military means. He preached that the ends justified the means including the use of ruse, deceit[64], cunning and subterfuge[65]. However Kautilya has discussed conventional warfare in great detail and has also given the option of frontal attack on the enemy.[66] 35. Role and Mission. In an increasingly complex world, the missions of the armed forces are correspondingly more diverse and complex than ever before. In times of peace and tension, the armed forces are a powerful instrument of the nations foreign policy.[67] In times of crisis and conflict, they are the foremost expression of the nations will and intent. Suffice to say that the expectations of a nation from its military are diverse and wide-ranging. Therefore, modern warfare is not restricted to war alone. Rather, they encompass the military, political, economic and the diplomatic aspects. 36. Nature of War. War or conflict has two different characteristics. One, which represents progress and change, and the other, which represents constancy and permanency. On one hand, the dynamics of progress and change depend much upon a commanders imagination, innovativeness, grasp of technology and complexity. While on the other, the Arthashastra is testimony to the constant and unchanging nature of war. Studies of military history show that certain features constantly recur; that certain relations between type of action and success often remain the same; that certain circumstances and moments have time and time again, proved decisive. Past being the prologue of future, underscores the relevance and significance of studies of military history such as propagated by the Arthashastra. Joint Intelligence Preparation of Operational Environment 37. Factor of Space. The r